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From Infringement to Liberation: Idu

From Infringement to Liberation: Idu

Reading of Flora Nwapa’s Idu

Flora Nwapa, in her own words, conveys in a nutshell, her idea of the African woman at her best:

... The African woman is intelligent, beautiful, hardworking and everything an ideal woman should be ... She has great independence of spirit.1

Efuru, her first novel marks a long-awaited departure from the stereotypical female portraiture in male-authored African literature. Flora Nwapa's world is predominantly a feminine world as she focuses on the women' world giving only peripheral treatment to the affairs of men. All her novels are heroine-oriented and in them, she writes about women's experience even though it is considered trivial ___ unimportant, trifling and frivolous. In an interview with Marie A.Umeh, Nwapa says

... I do write about women in Nigeria, in Africa, I try to paint a positive picture about women because there are many women who are very, very positive in their thinking, who are very, very independent, and very, very industrious.

Her women emerge as self-assertive and highly individual in the tradition-bound African society. They are non-conforming and seek happiness despite their failure in adhering to the norms of the society.

In the African tradition women are excluded from public affairs and all powers are vested in men. Women have no pride of place in the society. They are submissive and dependent on men. Man treats her as a farm-hand and is considered fit only to cook and look after the family. She has to show excessive respect to her husband, kneel before him and address him master and cannot even eat along with him. Education is not meant for girls. Fathers choose husbands for their daughters as marriages are viewed as the union of two kinship groups and not two individuals. Polygamy is practiced. Children are central to the lives of the villagers. Hence, barrenness is a curse for a woman. It is wrong for a woman on her own to take a major decision. It is a male prerogative. A woman's place is in the home and her duty is to marry and have children. Such social norms blot out her `self', her individuality and separate identity.

In the African tribal society a woman to be free or independent means to disregard restrictive traditional norms, to depart from the prescribed roles to demand her rightful place in the social set-up and to have a mind of her own. Without any male help, a free woman is capable of leading her own life. Flora Nwapa's Efuru is the first novel in African literature to strike out into a new path by projecting the image of highly intelligent and beautiful woman who wills her way with indomitable courage. Efuru is free from her oppressive and abusive husbands and is a symbol of survival and independence. However, she has been chosen by Uhamiri, the Goddess of the Lake, to be one of her worshippers, which means that she can never have a happy married life or children. Her two husbands are unfaithful to her. While the first husband deserts her and does not even attend the burial of their only child, the second one has an illicit affair with another woman and wrongly accuses Efuru of adultery. Efuru divorces him and returns to her father's house. Thus, she ends where she began. Her father dies and now she is childless, husbandless, fatherless __ quite alone. This must have prompted Eustace Palmer to call Efuru a tragedy. But Florence Stratton rightly remarks that, "Efuru is not a tragedy ... Rather it is a novel of successful development, of a woman's successful development __ a female bildungsroman".

In her writings Nwapa harps on the fate of the energetic and independent women. She accommodates the childless, husbandless, motherless, the educated and the distinguished women who can help to reconstruct their community. When she is labelled a feminist, she boldly affirms the fact by saying, "... I am feminist with a big `f' because ... feminism is about possibilities; there are possibilities, there are choices. Let us not be afraid to say that we are feminists".

Speaking about the portrayal of women in her novels, Nwapa says that they are independent, industrious and positive in thinking unlike how men present them :

I try to project the image of women positively. I attempt to correct our menfolks when they started writing, when they wrote little or less about women, where their female characters are prostitutes and ne'er-do-wells. I started writing to tell them this is not so".

About the major ideological difference between male and female writing in Nigeria, Nwapa says:

The male writers have disappointed us a great deal by not painting the female character as they should paint them. I have to say that there's been a kind of an ideological change. I think male writers are now presenting women as they are. They are not only mothers; they are not only palm collectors; they are not only traders; but they are also wealthy people. Women can stand on their own.

In her novels, Nwapa portrays the African woman as many things in one ___ an African, `every-woman', hard-working, well-wishing, competent, patient and long-suffering, mother of sorrows, a distinguished woman, a symbol of the universal woman, who fights or struggles for her independence and for virtual place in her society.

Nwapa wrote six novels, a biography, several short stories, and children's literature. Her first novel, Efuru (1996), marks the bold departure from the portrayal of a traditional woman character in African literature. It is based on an old folk tale and is about a woman chosen by Gods. Efuru, the protagonist, is free, independent, self-assertive and beautiful and therefore admired by the community. Her honesty, nobility and her success in trading are appreciated. Despite her outward success, she suffers the loss of her only child and the abandonment of two husbands. Eventually she is able to realise that personal fulfilment can be attained not through the conventional roles of wife and mother, but by being alone and independent. She dedicates her life to Goddess and begins a new life. Flora Nwapa portrays, for the first time, in African literature a woman who seeks happiness despite her inability to bear children and behave in prescribed feminine ways.

In the titular novel, Idu (1969) also, Nwapa presents an assertive, individualistic and non-conforming woman. A devoted wife to a doting husband, Idu questions the customary glorification of motherhood in the traditional society by rejecting it as the only significant justification for a woman's existence. She is able to exercise her choice in matters that concern her and thus represents the emerging new woman in the African society.

The lives of Efuru and Idu examine and revise the prevalent notions of marriage, social responsibility, self-sacrifice and service to society and humanity. Their lives also deal with childlessness and the disastrous effect this has on marital life in a rural African setting.

While Efuru registers a bold departure from traditionally accepted image of an African woman, Idu stands as an example of a new and awakened African woman. Both of them are perfect women ___ ideal wives, successful market women, strong-willed, self-assertive, generous and popular in their respective villages. They were barren and had to suffer from loneliness for a brief period. Both of them, generally, are conforming but can also transcend the norms when life plays tricks on them.

Flora Nwapa's Efuru and Idu are the beginning of a new breed of heroines in African literature. In effect they proclaim to the world the rise of the self-assertive African woman, whose willing subordination of her`self' can no longer be taken for granted by the African male. They are a radical departure from the traditionally subordinate role assigned to them.1

Efuru as well as Idu are able to flout tradition in their own way. Two successive marital failures and loss of the only child cause immense grief to Efuru. But Efuru manages to survive the tragedy and realise her `self'. Her devotion to the Lake Goddess, Uhamiri, helps her to get back to her independent and happy life. Idu, on the other hand feels it hard to withstand the death of her dear husband and flouts all conventions. She refuses to marry her brother-in-law, to scrape her hair and wear black dress for mourning as per the custom. She died the day her husband died and dies physically days after. Her son and her pregnancy could not deter her from her determination to join her husband in the `land of death'. This prompts Lloyd W.Brown to comment thus :

Nwapa's protagonist arrives at her crucial decisions as individual in a social context that is heavily influenced by that sense of order which flows from strong social institutions and established moral norms especially the conventions governing the woman's role as a part of the family unit.2

Marriage and consequent motherhood are generally the goal and destiny of any African woman. Motherhood is more glorified than wifehood and it gives contentment and fulfilment to a woman. Idu, happily married to Adiewere, is sad as she fails to become a mother even after several years of marriage. Except this blemish in their lives, the couple are prosperous and contented. Idu's husband is not particularly disturbed about this. Idu weeps over her misfortune, who feels degraded and humiliated since barrenness is considered a great curse for an Igbo woman.

Idu racks with inward grief when she hears about her co-sister Ogbenyanu's pregnancy. She takes her apparent barrenness with due seriousness and asks her husband that, "When do you think my own baby will come?"3. Her devoted husband, Adiewere, consoles her:

I don't want you to start crying tonight because you have no child. I am your husband, do you hear ? I am the one to get worried, not you. My mother is dead. My only brother is Ishiodu, and he does not count for much. So don't worry. (16)

In the traditional Igbo society, it is very uncommon for a husband not to worry about his wife's sterility. Accordingly Adiewere does worry about his wife's childlessness, but only in the first year of their marriage. Then he stops to brood over the problem due to his great love for his wife. Even after three years of fruitless marriage, he refuses to pay heed to people's advice for a second marriage as he cannot imagine marrying another woman.

Idu, too is equally devoted to her husband and has great concern for his health. She stops her trading if he is not well, "We talk of trading only when we have good health"(14). She consults the dibia, for his health. On such occasions, during her absence, many of the business customers refuse to sell their oil to other traders. Her business friends Okeke and his friend Okorie who brought the kernal oil from the town also refuse to sell their oil to others. Her envious co-trader questions, "What do you do for them that they stick to you?" (23).

Being good traders, Idu and Adiewere secure a huge profit in their trade and plan to complete the out-house which is half-left due to the troubles created by Ishiodu, Adiewere's only brother. Ishiodu's kernal oil is stolen and as a result the company puts him in cell. The couple spend all their money to release him. At the time of his marriage also they gave some money for trading. But in no time they are deeply in debts and Idu and Adiewere have to clear all their debts. Adiewere supports his brother mainly because of the moral obligations of the family ties. Their kindness and generosity have won the hearts of the people who pray to god and the ancestors to give them children.

In the traditional society a woman who cannot reproduce is not a woman. A child is more valuable than money. The richest woman on the earth is the poorest without a child. Idu is pitied and regarded as a failure just as Efuru in her second marriage. One woman puts it in Idu, "What we are all praying for is children. What else do we want if we have children?" (150). However, the ever-loving Adiewere vows to stick to his childless wife through thick and thin as his love for her outweighs other considerations. Idu, on the other hand is not willing to play second fiddle. But the rules are clear in the tribal community. If a woman has no child then she must allow her husband to marry another woman for the sake of children and thereby help to continue her husband's lineage:

If Idu can't have a child, let her allow her husband to marry another wife. That's what our people do. (33)

After several persuasions the reluctant Idu, atlast finds a girl for her husband. The new wife however, does not easily fit into their pattern of life and as a result the quite and peaceful life of them is disturbed. Despite domestic tensions and unease because of the new wife, Idu treats her as a child, "I shall be good to her. It's not in my nature to be unkind or harsh to

children, ..." (47). She believes that all is well with them and their trade also prospers after the young wife joins them. Though the new wife threatens to destroy the harmony of their relationship, Idu manages to dissociate herself from her co-wife's self-seeking individualism and maintains an air of tranquility.

By her prayers or by her luck, after several years of married life, Idu eventually conceives and her long cherished dream of motherhood is going to be fulfilled. Nwasobi who hears about Idu's pregnancy thanks the god and says, "When a woman is good, God, our ancestors, and the Woman of the Lake all look at her stomach, not at her head, but at her stomach". (42)

The long-awaited Idu's pregnancy fills joy and contentment in Adiewere who also thinks this as a proof of his manliness. Now he thinks that it will be good for him, if his second wife decides to go back to her people on her own will. Indeed, she does it, on her own accord for another man, without being aware of Idu's pregnancy and marries him.

Meanwhile Idu continues with her trade as usual. People talk about Idu and her pregnancy and whenever she comes to beach, her business customers come in groups and give her many presents. Her business friends Okeke and Okorie bring her so many fruits, foodstuff and admire her and look up to her with respect.

Idu gives birth to a fine baby boy, Ijoma but on an unusual day when, "... We had night in the afternoon. It is a bad day. Pray that the baby does not come today" (84). But the baby does come on the day of an eclipse, when "... night could occur twice in one day. It was unheard of" (82). However, to Idu and Adiewere, the day of the child's birth is auspicious and Ijoma is regarded as a prodigy in many ways, mainly because, he is born on a day on which there has been an eclipse of the Sun. Anamadi gradually changes her attitude and loves her nephew Ijoma and stays with him most of the time. She is so fond of Ijoma that she cannot tolerate anybody causing any inconvenience to him. Idu is happy with her sister who is reconciled to her.

Idu and Adiewere's life is much enriched with the arrival of Ijoma. His exuberance and brightness overwhelm them. Everyone talk about Idu's family, applaud them and they expect that Idu's womb is open. Her husband also thinks that his wife's womb will accommodate more children but sadly it is not so with Idu.

After her first child, Idu fails to conceive again for two long years and again the society begins to censure her. Once Onyemuru meets Idu and asks,"... did you say that your husband should not marry another woman. Come, did you say that?"(90). Even though Idu denies the charge, Onyemuru continues to blame her:

You said so. If you did not say so, he would have married another wife. You have already driven away the second wife he married, such a good wife. We don't do things like that here. You are a dangerous woman. (90)

Though Idu tries to ignore her, this sudden and unwarranted attack gives her a shock. Upset with Onyemuru's words, Idu asks her husband to marry another woman, "I don't want to be called a bad woman any more" (91). Adiewere agrees to marry to satisfy his wife but he adds, "... Idu, what man will marry another woman after marrying you. You know you are different".(91)

The theme of importance of children in an African marriage is again illustrated in the marriage of Ojiugo and Amarajeme. Ojiugo, Idu's childhood friend, is also industrious, prosperous and generous, but her's is a fruitless marriage. Whenever Idu and Ojiugo meet they chat amiably about many things, "... On their trade, their husbands, and the gossips in town" (37). Amarajeme is a good man like Idu's husband, and worships his wife for her good qualities.

One day, Ojiugo, who is expecting a child disappears, having confided in her friend Idu that she is going to live with Obukodi, her husband's friend, who is the father of her expected child. Her desertion makes Amarajeme heart-broken. Sympathisers pour in but he is confident that his wife will come back, as they are drawn towards each other on the basis of deeper feelings marked by sincerity, intensity, and devotion. Ignorant of the reasons for her abandonment, he mourns without eating anything. Idu, who knows this comes with her husband to see him, pities him, but she cannot do anything for him.

In her early years of married life itself, Ojiugo realises the impotence of her husband. Being a good woman, she finds it difficult to break lose from the shackles of marriage and remains patient for six years. Finally she has no qualms about deserting him for a man, Obukodi, who can guarantee her, her cherished dream of motherhood. It may not be difficult to understand the compulsive nature of circumstances and the intensity of feelings that have driven Ojiugo to take recourse to such a desperate action.

Amarajeme who does not know about his sterility lives in his usual sad mood with hope. After three months he stops cooking for Ojiugo and wears black dress as a sign of mourning. Everyone is horrified at this, because Ojiugo is not dead. He waits thus for eight full months and one day the thoughtless, Onyemuru blasts the news that Ojiugo has a son. Amarajeme slowly realizes that he is impotent, and he is not like other men. He recognizes that he is the one who is sick, and to be blamed.

When Amarajeme learns that Ojiugo has a son, he hangs himself in the mistaken notion that every man must reproduce patriarchy. He ends his life tragically and as Ogunyemi perceives,"... by taking his life, he further devalues himself in a community where suicide is a taboo and the corpse is trash"4. The news of Amarajeme's death makes Ojiugo to repent and she throws herself on the floor and weeps." I have killed him. I am a murderer. I have killed him. He hanged himself because I left him" (144). Even though she leaves Amarajeme for the sake of child, she bemoans for his death. Inspite of the suggestions from all, including Idu's, the wealthy, independent and the new mother dies on the day her husband has died demonstrating her deep-seated love for him.

Idu becomes pregnant for the second time when Ijoma is four years old and now her anxiety over having another child is also dispelled. But Adiewere dies suddenly and mysteriously leaving Idu shattered. As any other day, they are at the beach and Adiewere complains of dizziness and leaves for home and dies of a mysterious disease. Idu, runs home, sees that Adiewere is dead, becomes motionless, then goes to Nwasobi and informs her very quietly about her husband's death.

The serenity of Idu makes Nwasobi's blood cold. When Nwasobi implores her to weep, Idu asks:

`Weep for what?'... Weep for Adiewere? That is not what we agreed on. He has cheated me. We did not agree on what to do if this sort of thing happened. We did not think of it. Why do you want me to weep. I am going with him. Leave me alone, I am going with him." (210)

Idu cannot take his death. In anguish she retrospects her life with him and remembers what she has said once, "It is life we are praying for, life and nothing else"(206). After Adiewere's death, she decides to follow him so that they can continue the relationship in the other world, "I am going with my husband. Both of us will go there, to the land of the death". (210)

Idu's behaviour is rather strange. She refuses to scrape her hair and wear black dress for mourning as custom demands. No amount of persuasion can change her mind and she even tells her husband's people that, "She was going soon to the land of the dead; and that Adiewere would not like to see her hair scraped" (215). Anamadi, finds her sister, Idu's behaviour strange:

Idu would not eat anything. She had said things that frightened her. Alone in the room, she had talked to Adiewere as if he was there physically. Some mornings she had greeted him as usual, and laughed when she suddenly remembered that he was no longer there.(217)

Pressure mounts on her to marry Ishiodu, her husband's brother. But she flatly refuses, to do that as she is bent on following her husband to the next world:

I have not forgotten Ijoma, my son. And the one in my womb. Adiewere said it would be a boy. I will have it in the land of the dead ... I have arranged everything. (216)

Idu has the will power to do what exactly she has been saying-to die for her husband. For this, she does not commit suicide nor fall sick at that time and die from it. One afternoon, twenty eight days after her husband's death, she expresses her desire to eat as she has not eaten for days since he died. Nice meal is prepared by her sister. She washes her hands as if she is cleaning them for a ritual. For the first time, she throws a morsel of the food to Adiewere, the ancestors, the Gods and then begins to eat a nice meal, lies down and dies.

Idu tells her sister, "I am going to sleep. I am very tired. When Nwasobi comes, ask her to come inside" (218). Nwasobi comes and tries to speak to Idu. She touches her and realises what has happened. Anamadi, shocked, shakes her "... as if by doing so she would bring her back to life. Come let's prepare her for the funeral, don't you see she is dead? She kept her word. She has followed her husband ..."(218).

The manner in which Idu dies is gripping as well as unbelievable. It is difficult to understand the possibility of such a thing however intense the grief may be. Dispelling the doubts, Ernest N.Emenyonu affirms the possibility when he says:

Too fantastic? Not if you have been `listening' to the voices in the novel. Too unrealistic? Not if you have been close enough to the Igbo culture and life-ways. Too remote? Not if you understand that even among the Igbo, the love between two individuals can be such that one can die without the other.5

Idu rejects life and children in preference to following her dead husband. It cannot be considered as a cowardly act or a failure to face the responsibilities of motherhood. It is an indication of the deepest kind of love she possesses for her husband. Nirupa Rani glorifies her death when she comments:

It is not death that she experiences as an end but the union with the spirit of her husband. This achievement of freedom from the mundane world gives her "Peace".6

Idu's strong determination to get united with her husband through death receives commendation from yet another critic who says that."She succeeds in her death-wish by her renunciation of worldly pleasures and by her tapas, and attains a kind of swachanda marana, voluntary death"7. Idu's death is a shattering blow to Nwasobi and Anamadis' who are overwhelmed by grief, " No, no it can't be, it's not so ..." (218).

Amarajeme, Ojiugo's husband grieves at the loss of his dear wife. But he commits suicide by hanging only when he becomes aware of her desertion and her pregnancy by another man which discloses to the world, his sterility. Thus, in choosing death, he accepts the society's concern with motherhood and fatherhood. In contrast to this, in the case of Idu as well as Ojiugo, neither children nor prosperity counts for anything because both women, in spite of having children, still refuse to live on after the deaths of their respective husbands. Ojiugo, according to Idu, `died' the day that her husband Amarajeme died. Her life becomes meaningless after the death of her former husband. Though she leaves him because of his impotence, still she retains greatest respect for him. That's why "she `died' the day her husband died. The day Amarajeme died, that was the day she `died'"(216). Idu's case is even more puzzling as she knows she is pregnant when Adiewere dies but she still insists on joining him. She clearly states, "I have not forgotten Ijoma, my son. And the one in my womb... I will have it in the land of the died".(216)

Women in the African society function as instruments of procreation and hence even their infidelity or instability does not permanently scar the women. It is their central role as mother which supercedes that of wife. It was regarded a curse not to have children. A barren woman is considered a failure. This is the worst affliction a couple can endure and it is always attributed to the woman.

Thus Idu's anguish at her inability to conceive on two occasions is understandable. When her son Ijoma is presumed to be lost, Idu weeps bitterly, "Ijoma is the only thing I have in this world"(186). She frantically searches for him, "My Ijoma, where is my Ijoma, where is my only son? where is my only child? Has he drowned?" (189)

By and large, the Africans consider children as basis for marriage. Idu is even told once, " what else do we want if we have children?" (150). Idu's story is a fitting reply to that question. Ogunyemi reiterates this view when he says that, " ... With the death of the pregnant Idu, Nwapa insists that having a child in not necessarily fulfilling ..."8

Idu has a child, but when her husband dies, she prefers to follow him to the next world. In doing so, what she desires is to continue her fulfiling relationship with her husband even after death rather than to live on as a mother to her children. She clearly demonstrates, contrary to the prevailing notion, that children are not the only thing she wants from life. Idu redefines death as a transforming alternative rather than decisive ending. Lloyd W.Brown very aptly analyses this when he says:

Idu does not assume that a husband is indispensable for a woman's self-respect, any more than she accepts the consensus that motherhood is the only significant justification for a woman's existence. Her final choice emphasizes that it is the matter of choice itself that is most important in the woman's identify.9

Though Idu defies the customs a widow is expected to follow, she faithfully observes certain other rituals, atleast at the time of her death. This means she has only accepted certain rituals but not the traditional belief of superiority of motherhood. A woman needs courage of her conviction to surmount opposition to be true to herself and Idu has that in abundance.

The question of choice is the underlying theme of Idu. Idu chooses a qualitatively satisfying life with Adiewere. Once he is dead, the only choice left for her is to continue the relationship beyond death. That's why she refuses to observe formal mourning for Adiewere and defies established norms, socially sanctioned roles of a wife and bereaved widow. Her personal feelings go beyond social conventions. Death is now relatively insignificant for her, death merely represents the transformation of the context within which their love will continue. In contrast to Idu, faced with two choices, marriage and motherhood on the one hand and independence on the other hand, Efuru chooses to be independent without breaking her ties with the community. Idu, like Efuru is independent and is capable of making choices. This prompts Lloyd W. Brown to comment that, "The emphasis is not on specific roles, but on the woman's need for a free choice of roles".10

Efuru, the childless, the husbandless, but the educated and the distinguished woman is able to transform herself into a new woman who can help to reconstruct the community. Uhamiri stands for fierce independence and tender female caring which are the signs of her authority and Efuru is endowed with the same as her worshipper and becomes a spiritual model for all. Idu decides to end her life through starvation thereby resisting the role of a widow who must submit to the social norms.

Yemi Mojola considers Efuru and Idu "... as Nwapa's vision of the ideal Igbo woman rather than representing the ordinary Igbo woman".11 To him these characters appear to be at odds with Igbo reality. On the contrary Nirupa Rani finds that, "... Efuru and Idu are very earthly and are primordial in nature".12

Chimalum Nwankwo also justifies Flora Nwapa's presentation when he says:

The so-called perfection in their characters is there because Nwapa expects these characters to be accepted in the manner in which icons of other cultures and societies are accepted. There are appropriate male and female foils in either novel to high light the goodness of Efuru and Idu respectively.13

Clenching the issue, Femi Ojo-Ade finds Idu more acceptable and realistic between the sisters. He views that:

Idu, though tragically struck like Efuru, is a more acceptable personality. She is closer to tradition than the cantankerous Efuru. Her joys are more authentic, more down-to-earth. While Efuru is `married' to the Woman of the Lake... Idu remains forever attached to her Adiewere... the more traditional Idu rebels against tradition while the more modern Efuru espouses tradition.14

Nwapa's conception of love and the marital bond is rooted in the African world view. Flora Nwapa has been able to correlate the traditional African view point, and the social structure to the universal attitude of the woman. In Idu Nwapa tells that deep love does not contemplate the possibility of separation.

Idu thus emerges as the trend - setter and the progenitor of a new generation of African woman. She is able to rebel against the established customs and practices of the society and thereby assert her individuality. She demonstrates her freedom by choosing death when her husband dies. The triumphant effect of Idu's choice and her minimizing of death is particularly strong. Her choice of death can be viewed as an affirmation of love and a commitment to her husband which has strength to even transcend death .

Trying to place Idu in the African literary tradition, Lloyd W. Brown says, "Idu falls somewhere between the frank exposal of the communal tradition in Sutherland's drama and the Western oriented sense of individualism in the novels of South Africa's Bessie Head."15

REFERENCES

1. L. Sasibala. "Heroines of Flora Nwapa". Commonwealth Fiction. vol.II, Ed. R.K. Dhawan.New Delhi : Prestige, 1998: 262.

2. Lloyd W. Brown. Women writers in Black Africa. Westport CT: Greenwood, 1981: 151.

3. Flora Nwapa Idu. London: Heinemann, 1970: 16.

All further page references are taken from this edition.

4. Chikwenye Okenjo Ogunyemi. "Introduction: The Invalid, Dea(r)th, and the Author: The Case of Flora Nwapa, aka Professor (Mrs.) Flora Nwanzuruahu Nwakuche". Research in African Literatures. vol.26 No.2 Summer, 1995: 8.

5. Ernest N. Emenyonu. "Who does Flora Nwapa Write For?" African Literature Today. 7. 1975: 30.

6. K.Nirupa Rani. "The Feminine perspective: A study of Flora Nwapa's Efuru and Idu". African Literature Today Ed.by. R.K. Dhawan. New Delhi : Prestige, 1994: 203

7. Sasibala, 272.

8. Ogunyemi, 8.

9. Brown, 151.

10. Brown, 151.

11. Yemi Mojola. "Flora Nwapa." The Guardian. (Lagos) 23 Nov, 1985: 21.

12. Nirupa Rani, 201.

13. Chimalum Nwankwo. "The Igbo Word in Flora Nwapa's Craft" Research in African Literatures. 26.2. summer, 1995: 48.

14. Femi Ojo - Ade. "Female Writers, Male Critics." African Literature Today. 13. 1983: 165.

15. Brown, 157.

About the Author

D/o venkatrama raju
d.o.b. 20-08-1976
qualification: M.A., M.Phil(English)
Dept. of english,
Sri padmavati women's university, tirupati-2,
Andhra pradesh India

Which art form is an example of artists’ original intent varying from that of collectors?

A African tribal art
B Florentine art
C Abstract art
D None of the Above

A African tribal art - because it was part of the lives and beliefs of the people; it wasn't made for selling or giving away.

476 Dindoshi flats up in the air
The fate of 476 flat owners in Dindoshi, rests on what the suburban collector finds about the caste of Anandibai Gadak, who died in October 1984.

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